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CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Diplomacy, a word derived from the
Greek word “diploma” which is an official document emanating from princes; a
diploma is understood to be a document by which a privilege is conferred. Some
scholars have argued that the origin of diplomacy is hard to trace. According
to them, the major subject of concern in the field of diplomacy has been its
practice, rather than its origins (Der Deriam, 1987:2). Diplomacy as
predicating the art of representation and representation is as old as human
society itself. Nicolson (1969:6) argues that even in pre-history there must
have come moments when one group of savages wished to negotiate with another
group of savages, if only for the purpose of indicating, that they had had
enough of the day‟s battle and would like a pause in which to collect their
wounded, and to bury their dead. The fact that these savages did not spend all
their time fighting, in Nicolson‟s view, is diplomacy. The nature and the
nearness to one another of the numerous Greek city/states encouraged the development
of inter-state relations. The political and commercial relations among the
states gave rise to the cause of the states they represented in the popular
assemblies of the other city-states. These intermediaries or „pourpaleurs‟ as
they were called had to be orators and they enjoyed certain privileges and
immunities such as the inviolability of their person.
Diplomacy in the era of the Greeks was
far from perfect. Ambassadors were appointed on an ad-hoc basis and for
specific purpose. This led to the appointment of many ambassadors from a state
to another at the same time. The contributions of the Romans, to the
development of diplomacy were more in theory, in the realm of international
law, than in practice. Their determination to impose “Pax Romana” on the world
meant the ascendancy of force over diplomacy. In spite of this, however, the
idea of appointing people with very high status started with them. Renaissance
diplomacy was introduced which increased the functions of ambassadors. They
were no longer political emissaries but also commercial agents. They needed to
gather general information relating to the political, social and economic
activities of the state to which they were accredited. Renaissance diplomacy
suffered serious shortcomings. There was no agreed order of precedence, either
in presenting credentials or in signing treaties, and each of these activities
often led to unseemly wrangles, sometimes resulting into physical combat.
Besides, it was noted for its immorality. Ambassadors were not paid well, yet
they had to cater for their staff. They often had to resort into bribery,
pinching and converting funds into their own pockets.
After the congress of Vietnam in 1815
the array of the shortcomings of Renaissance diplomacy were removed. The
Regalement of 19 March, 1815 and the subsequent regulation of the congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle settled the issue of precedence and the hierarchy of diplomatic
representation. Precedence was no longer based on the prestige and status of an
ambassadors sovereign but on the priority of the ambassador‟s
appointment.(Olusola Ojo, Amadu Sesay,1988:203). However, ancient Greece and
Roman history and literature are replete with records and references to
“diplomatic” activities. The growing interdependence of states as well as the
two World Wars have shaped and continue to affect the development of diplomacy.
The common features of diplomacy in the contemporary system includes; “open”,
“parliamentary” and “multilateral diplomacy”. Open diplomacy means the negotiations
and discussions carried out in handling affairs without arousing hostility. It
is usually carried on with free access to interested observers and members of
the press. It refers to the art and practice of conducting negotiations between
nations.
Multilateral diplomacy can be defined
as the practice of involving more than two nations or parties in achieving
diplomatic situations to supranational problems (Kishore Mahbubani, 2013).
Multilateral diplomacy also known as “conference diplomacy” involves relations 3
between more than two states. Within
the European system of states, there were multilateral conferences related to
peace settlement or congress in the 17th century. Multilateral diplomacy began
in its modern form in the early 19th century, following the end of the
Napoleonic wars, congress of Vienna in 1815. Multilateral diplomacy blossomed
in the 20th century because they were essential to the conducts of negotiation
when states became too numerous. Multilateral diplomacy brings together all the
parties whose agreement is necessary. Multilateral diplomacy also holds its
popularity to the fact that conferences in the European system of that time
were essentially conferences of the great powers. It was a device for
identifying and advertising membership of the great power club, but small
states were also allowed to attend if their vital interests were concerned but
they were usually condemned to margins. Conference diplomacy also became
popular because it also gives impetus to bilateral diplomacy in two ways
(Tunji, 2014). Hence, a multilateral conference can provide opportunities for
participants to discuss matters outside the formal agenda. For example: (a) A
conference at the UN is an opportunity for states to hold bilateral talk (b)
Powerful mediators can hold a multilateral conference to kick-start under
“discreet cover” a series of essentially bilateral negotiations.
The types of multilateral diplomacy
includes: plurilateral diplomacy, para-diplomacy, parliamentary diplomacy,
conference diplomacy, and associative diplomacy to mention but a few. In
conclusion, multilateral diplomacy is challenging and often underappreciated.
The dynamics are often more complex because one is dealing with multiple
players. Following from the forgoing, in contemporary times, the machinery of
diplomacy is made up of two components. First, there is the home government
ministry called various names in various countries. In Nigeria, it is called
the Ministry of Foreign affairs‟, in Britain, it is called the Foreign Office,
and in the United States, it is called the Department of State. The second is
the numerous diplomatic missions abroad, the embassies and the high commissions
and consulates. The diplomatic mission which is the centre of all diplomatic
activity is headed by an Ambassador which is the eyes, ears and mouth of the
ministry of external affairs. Hence, the functions of diplomats can be divided
into four broad categories: negotiation, representation, reporting and
protection of national interest and subjects. A good diplomat is sported with
the following qualities: Specialist knowledge, professional skills and Personal
qualities (Tunji, 2014).
On the other hand, the term conflict
in international relations generally refers to armed conflict (Goldstein and
Pevehouse, 2010:157). Conflict is the universal framework of the society. Its
origin is derived from: economic differentiation, social change, cultural
formation, psychological development and political organization. Conflicts are
dynamic as they escalate and de-escalate and are constituted by a complex
interplay of attitudes and behaviors that can assume a reality of their own.
Conflicts have been variously defined in relations to fights, games and To some
people, conflict has been used to refer both to „consensual‟ conflicts over
interests (disputants want the same thing) and to „dissension‟ conflict over
values (disputants do not want the same thing) (Aubert, 1963 In Oliver et al,
2012: 9); others however have called the former „disputes‟ that require settlement
and have reserved the term conflict for deeper struggles over unsatisfied human
needs that require resolution (Burton, 1990a in Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom
Woodhouse, Hugh Miall 2012: 9). Conflict is defined as an irreconcilable
contention between two or more parties such as political ideologies, religious
differences ethnic and social differences. Likewise, conflict management is the
effective ways to deal with conflict, peacemaking, negotiation skills and all
aspects of influential communication.
Conflict resolution started in the
1950s and 1960s. This was at the height of the Cold War, when the development
of nuclear weapons and the conflict between the superpowers seemed to threaten
human survival (Oliver et al 2012: 4). In 1980, conflict resolution ideas were 5
increasingly making a difference in
real conflicts. Examples of countries where conflict resolutions ideas were
making a difference as at 1980 include South Africa, Middle East and Northern
Ireland. As a result of this development, war-torn regions of Africa and
South-East Asia, development workers and humanitarian agencies were seeing the
need to take account of conflict resolution as an integral part of their
activities.(oliver Ramsbotham, Tom woodhouse, Hugh Miall 2012: 4)
Conflict management is the process of
limiting the negative aspects of conflict while increasing the positive aspects
of conflict. The aim of conflict management is to enhance learning and group
outcomes, including effectiveness or performance in organizational setting (Ra
him 2002: 208 www.google.com retrieved January 3rd, 2015). The inevitability of
conflict whose history can be traced to the beginning of mankind/creation has
shaped us into what we are and who we are today. Conflict also has it basis
from the disparity between social classes: the “haves” and the “have-nots.” It
is however, universally admitted that despite the shortcomings of diplomacy and
its methods, it has been historically proven that no other firm basis for the
settlement of differences has so far been invented to replace diplomacy. Wars,
blockades, and other methods of coercion like sanctions employed at times, have
proved to lead to dead ends that diplomats are once again called to solve.
In the field of „Peace and conflict
management” diplomacy in relation to conflict management can be likened to the
concept of “Non violence Resistance” It is considered to be the art of the
feasible, because it embodies the elements of understanding, convention and
compromise which are the only elements normally leading to the finding of
solutions and ensure for people the much desired peace, via the conjunction of
common interests and away from inopportune publicity an chauvinistic loud tones
and rivalries that surely lead to conflicts, particularly in areas characterized
by the lack of balance in the post-bipolar era. Since the end of the Cold War
the international community through international institutions
has been focusing on preventive
diplomacy whose action is to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to
prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the
spread of the latter when they occur. By and large, the concepts of Diplomacy
and conflict management are inseparable and interrelated concepts. In the
context of this project, Diplomacy shall be critically examined broadly in
conflict management and specifically in the Russia and Ukraine crisis.
1.2. BACKGROUND OF THE RUSSIA-UKRAINE
CRISIS
The Russia-Ukraine crisis over Crimea
has its basis to the aftermath of the orange revolution. The crisis is an
international crisis majorly involving Russia and Ukraine over the Crimea.
Crimea peninsula was never historically a part of Ukraine, Its population was
Tatar. It was invaded and annexed by Russia in 18th century. In 1940-s, the
Soviets expelled all Tatar population from Crimea, Only after collapse of
Soviet Union they were permitted to return. Crimea was administratively joined
with Ukraine only in the second half of 20th century. Most of the non-Tatar
population is Russian. Crimean Peninsula is controlled by the Russian
Federation, a status which is not recognized by the United Nations. Crimea is
populated by an ethnic Russian majority and a minority of both ethnic
Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars. Prior to the crisis, Crimea comprised Ukraine's
Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the administratively separate municipality of
Sevastopol. The Russian Federation has organized them as the Crimean Federal
District.
The crisis unfolded in the aftermath
of the Ukrainian Revolution. On 21 February 2014 President Viktor Yanukovych of
Ukraine fled Kiev, the capital. The Ukrainian parliament deposed him the next
day, and the next week appointed an interim President ( Arseniy Yatsenyuk), and
formed an interim government which was recognized by the United States and the
European union. Beginning on February 26, pro-Russian forces began to gradually
take control of the Crimean peninsula. While troops occupied or guarded Crimea's
parliament building, the Crimean parliament voted to dismiss the Crimean
government, replace its Prime Minister, and call a referendum on Crimea's
autonomy. A referendum on whether to join Russia had an official turnout of 83%
and resulted in a 96.77% (Crimea) and 95.6% (Sevastopol) affirmative vote, but
was condemned by the EU, the US, Ukrainian and some Crimean Tatar officials as
violating Ukraine's constitution and international law. On March 17, the
Crimean Parliament declared independence from Ukraine and asked to join the
Russian Federation. On March 18 Russia and Crimea signed a treaty of accession
of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol into the Russian Federation. On March
27, the UN General Assembly passed a non-binding Resolution 68/262 that
declared the Crimean referendum invalid and the incorporation of Crimea into
Russia illegal. On April 15, the Ukrainian parliament declared Crimea as a
territory temporarily occupied by Russia.
Russia, trying to salvage its lost
influence in Ukraine, invaded and annexed Crimea. In April 2014, pro-Russia
separatist rebels began seizing territory in eastern Ukraine. The rebels shot
down Malaysian Airlines flight 17 on July 17, killing 298 people, probably
accidentally. Fighting between the rebels and the Ukrainian military
intensified, the rebels started losing, and, in August, the Russian army
overtly invaded eastern Ukraine to support the rebels. This has all brought the
relationship between Russia and the West to its lowest point since the Cold
War. Sanctions are pushing the Russian economy to the brink of recession, and
more than 2,500 Ukrainians have been killed (Kendall 2014 www.wikipedeia.com
Retrieved 5th January, 2015).
Diplomacy is central in every conflict
management and prevention situation and thus every effort geared towards
managing and preventing the Russia and Ukraine crisis is an act of diplomacy.
The anarchical nature of the international system makes states prone to
conflict and when conflict arises, they result to peaceful means of resolving
such conflict. Diplomacy, the major tool for resolving conflict is considered
to have failed when states result into war to resolve their differences.
Several diplomatic measures has been made in ensuring that the Russia and
Ukraine crisis does not escalate, to curb the excesses of Russia and its
president (Vladimir Putin) as well as to reverse specific actions that will
escalate the crisis. In the Russia and Ukraine crisis, there are five
stakeholders and prominent diplomats. They are: Russia, Ukraine, The United
Nations, the European Union and the United states. These diplomats have
contributed immensely in conflict management in Russia and Ukraine crisis.
Examples of diplomatic measures in managing the Russia and Ukraine crisis
include: the March 24th, 2014 G7 meeting in Brussels, instead of a cancelled
summit in Russia as a blow to Russian president Vladimir Putin (www.time.com
Retrieved 5th January, 2015). Restrictive measures includes: asset freezes and
visa bans, economic and diplomatic sanctions imposed on Russia by the United
states and European Union, the June 6th G7 meeting in Brussels; the first
meeting without Russia in 17years as world leader condemn Putin‟s actions
(www.euronews.com Retrieved 5th January, 2015). The United States and UK pile
pressure on Russia President, Barrack Obama‟s phone call to president Vladimir
Putin over the Russia and Ukraine crisis, the G7 submit in Hague on march 24th,
2014 where the G7 leaders talk about what extra sanctions they can take in
response to Russia on the seizure of an Ukrainian airbase on the peninsula (www.euronews.com
Retrieved 3rd January, 2015). The EU-Russia summit was cancelled and EU member
states decided not to hold regular bilateral summits. Bilateral talks with
Russia on visa matters as well as on the New Agreement between the EU and
Russia were suspended, 17 March 2014 the EU imposed the first travel bans and
asset freezes against Russian and Ukrainian officials following Russia‟s
illegal annexation of Crimea.
1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The anarchical structure of the world,
the struggle for power within the international system and most especially, the
inherent evil within man is the basis of conflict. In this vein, the concept of
diplomacy cannot be left un-emphasized. The world today is surrounded by
various violent conflicts namely; The Russia-Ukraine crisis, the Syrian war,
the Turkey conflict, Israeli-Palestinian war, Israeli-Gaza crisis, to mention
but a few. Most conflicting parties result into violence means of conflict
resolution which is the root cause of the disrupted international peace today.
Most diplomats of a country are non career diplomats with little or no
experience in the field of diplomacy; hence the result is failed diplomacy
Diplomacy as an important approach in
conflict management and prevention has been employed by various conflicting
individuals, communities as well as nations states/countries and have achieved
maximum result. They include: late Norwegian minister of foreign affairs:
“Johan Jorgen Holst”, Nelson Mandela, and Kofi Anan amongst many others. A lot of
research has been carried out on diplomacy as an important tool for conflict
management but most of these researches have not really described the
importance of diplomacy and also they have failed to look at the various ways
in which diplomacy is carried out. Therefore, this work considers it important
to undertake howbeit compendiously, a historical excursion into the art and
practice of diplomacy globally. This it is hoped will shed light into our
understanding of diplomacy as practiced by states within the international
system. This project will enlighten the reader on the efficacy of diplomats as
well as diplomacy in conflict management and various ways in which diplomacy
can be effected.
1.4. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
Amongst the various means of conflict
management tools in both contemporary and anachronous times, this project‟s
main objective is to examine the roles of diplomacy in conflict management and
prevention. The specific objectives of the study are;
i) To examine the historical relevance
of diplomacy in conflict management and prevention;
ii) To identify the roles and
significance of diplomats in the Russia-Ukraine crisis; and
iii) To assess the effects and impacts
of diplomacy in the Russia-Ukraine crisis.
TOPIC: THE ROLES OF DIPLOMACY IN CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND PREVENTION:
Chapters: 1 - 5
Delivery: Email
Delivery: Email
Number of Pages: 60
Price: 3000 NGN
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